African Americans & Campus Climate on Small PWI’s

     The article described the experiences of African American juniors and seniors in good academic standing who attended four different small, predominantly White liberal arts colleges in the Southern Appalachian region (Kentucky, North Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia) of the U.S.  The African American community at these colleges can often be challenging for Black male and female non-athletes.  In the past, most studies focused on African American students at mid to large public universities.  The black female and male non-athletes in this study found themselves as a minority inside the larger African American community.  The transition process for some African American students attending a predominantly white campus can be challenging, especially when it comes to adjusting to the campus climate.  Minority students on predominantly white campuses often rely on each other for support due to perceived negative connotations they sense from nonminority students and faculty. 

     According to students interviewed in the study, community among African American students was described as ranging from a close-knit family to a mere association.  Some African American students on small predominantly white campuses felt the need to stick together because there was such small number of African Americans on campus.  Some students, on the other hand, believed there was a need to enhance community on campus.  For some African American students on predominantly white campuses, their experience was unforeseen.  Students felt a closer bond to White students than Black students.  Some students in the study reported that African American males and females had difficulties getting along on campus and they thought some of this friction was due to interracial dating. 

     While an African American student is in the minority on a predominantly White campus, the experience was magnified for some students in the study, especially Black male and female non-athletes.  The common thinking at some of these campuses was that if a student is an African American, he or she must play a sport.  Some students felt that a sense of community existed only for student athletes in intercollegiate sports.  Whether an African American had light or dark skin also related to feeling like a “minority within a minority.”

       Despite the fact that expectations were often not met for Black students in this study, they persisted to graduation.   Top reasons for persistence included faculty influence, involvement in campus activities, family encouragement, and positive attitude.  Of these factors, faculty influence was number one. 

Littleton, R. A. (2003). Community Among African American Students on Small, Predominantly White Campuses: The Unforeseen "Minority within a Minority" Experience. NASPA Journal, 40(4), 83-104.

Teaching Religion Online to Black College Students

     The general practice of online teaching is still relatively new, but popular, and approaches for teaching target populations such as black students are very scarce (Arroyo, 2010).  Research has barely begun to define appropriate approaches for teaching Caucasian students online, let alone black students. 

     Higher education theory suggests that learning styles frequently vary between races and cultures.  According to Arroyo, a learning styles approach that takes into account racial and cultural ways of knowing is critical in the education of black students.  Black learners tend to prefer high contact, heavy verbal and non-verbal dialogue, deep community, and a sense of social purpose.  The online environment is more conducive to students who prefer autonomy, isolation, competition, standardization, and depersonalization. 

     Arroyo (2010) suggests that instructors keep the structure of the course free of elements that could present technological challenges in order to ensure all students have equal access.  For example, instructors must keep in mind that some students may access online courses through a dial-up connection or a hand-held device.  An abundance of audio or video can become cumbersome.  Arroyo (2010) also recommends a structure that require substantial instructor presence to meet the learning style of black students.  He also commented on the importance of the environment being warm and inviting so students feel they can openly share their ideas.  He accomplishes this by opening up discussion boards and wikis.  Research indicates that standardized assessments are unfavorable to black learners and Arroyo (2010) therefore believes that they have no place in an online course with black students.  Arroyo also commented that this sort of teaching is more labor intensive than traditional face-to-face teaching for both the instructor and the students. 

     The author believes that there is a danger in the illusion of the colorless classroom.  The nature of the online environment does not allow participants to “see” each other’s cultural and racial differences.  He cautions the reader to remember that on the other side of each computer is a living person of one race or another. 

Arroyo, A. T. (2010).  It's not a colorless classroom: Teaching religion online to black college students using transformative, postmodern pedagogy. Teaching Theology & Religion, 13(1), 35-50.

Student Perceptions of Various E-Learning Components

E-learning can either be fully online, mixed mode (also called hybrid), or web assisted (Buzzetto-More    , 2008).  Regardless of the model of delivery, there are a number of tools and features available to students and instructors, and it is important to examine both the preferences and uses of these features.  This study examined the e-learning perceptions and preferences of students enrolled at a historically black university. 

     Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU’s), while small in number, graduate the largest percentage of African Americans who earn college degrees in the United States.  They enroll 28% of all African American college students and graduate 40% of Black Americans who earn doctorates or first professional degrees.  At the same time, their student population is shown to have a high percentage of first generation, low income, and under prepared students. 

     A common assumption has been that a digital divide exists between majority and minority serving institutions.  While HBCU students come to college less technologically prepared, the use of e-learning is slowly rising in popularity with student perceptions of online learning viewed positively. 

     The majority of the study participants were minorities, with 75.9% being African American.  The majority of participants responded that they were intermediate computer users who had previously studied keyboarding and had their own computer.  Very few students said they had previous experience taking online courses.  Most students responded that they visited the course website daily.  Most respondents said that they prefer face-to-face courses over those delivered online, but the majority also said they are interested in taking a fully online course in the future. 

The results indicated that students find course websites helpful to understanding course content, and that these websites will continue to impact higher education in the future.  Students responded favorably to most e-learning components.  The strongest preference noted in the study was the online submission of assignments.  Students overwhelmingly noted that they like having the ability to check their assignment grades online.  The results reinforce the idea that e-learning is a good supplement to face-to-face instruction and that online learning has the ability to provide learners with more choices, greater flexibility, expanded resources, and increased opportunities. 

Buzzetto-More, N. A. (2008). Student perceptions of various e-learning components. Interdisciplinary Journal of Knowledge & Learning Objects, 113-135

The Inequalities of the Digital Divide. Is E-Learning a Solution?

     The U.S. faces technological segregation based on access, digital literacy, and cultural

limitations.  Both urban and rural areas feel the effect of the digital divide more than suburban areas.  This is, in large part, due to socioeconomic status and ethnicity.  The digital divide affects large numbers of African Americans and Latinos.  Many rural areas remain out of range for internet services, and even those that can access the internet often can only use dial-up modems, placing them at quite a disadvantage compared to broadband users.  The digital access of African Americans and Latinos falls well behind that of whites and Asian-Americans .  In addition, digital literacy, a measure of how comfortably one uses technology based on previous experiences, also plays a role in the digital divide.  Discrepancies in technology instruction occur across the U.S. and tend to be impacted by geographic location, socioeconomic status, and race.  Also, students from more privileged socioeconomic backgrounds are encouraged to develop computer skills, making them less anxious about using technology.  A discrepancy in how students use computers exists, too.  Students from low socioeconomic backgrounds use computers to do rote exercise and present existing material, whereas students from high socioeconomic backgrounds use computers to research, edit papers, and perform statistical analyses.  Cultural implications, such as teachers allowing male students more time to access technology, contribute to the digital divide. 

     E-learning is a possible solution to give low-income students a quality education.  The basic draw of e-learning is that students of certain geographic and socioeconomic locations can access distant educational opportunities without ever leaving their home / community.  Skeptics view e-learning as impersonal.  The ability to foster online communities rests largely in the hands of instructors that teach e-courses, therefore, teachers need training in how to teach classes online. 

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Journell, W. (2007).  The inequalities of the digital divide: Is e-learning a solution? E-Learning, (4), 138-149. 

Student Organizations and African American Male Student Leaders

Considerable attention has been previously devoted to studying African American college students, however, the ongoing exploration of their needs and experiences is necessary (Harper & Quaye, 2007).  African American college students often face racism, feelings of isolation, and academic obstacles at predominately White institutions.  The study found that although some African American male students were members of mainstream campus organizations, African American males were primarily holding leadership positions in predominantly Black and minority student organizations.  Regardless of the organization or the position held, however, African American male student leaders communicated a commitment to uplifting the African American community and dispelling stereotypes.  An interesting observation uncovered in the study was that males who chose to be exclusively involved in predominantly Black organizations did so because they wanted to be part of a group that responded directly to the needs and concerns of African American students.  And those who were more involved in predominantly White student organizations did so because they felt that these organizations lacked representation of African American students.  These students commented that they wanted to be the first to diversify these groups.  They also knew that these student organizations had greater resources and funding to get minority initiatives funded.  Overall, these male student leaders were compelled to get involved so their voices and the voices of other African American males could be heard.  They also commented that these groups helped them learn to deal with White people. 

     Participants of this study commented that they sometimes volunteered to provide an African American perspective in different mainstream student organizations, but often times they were involuntarily forced into these roles.  Many students referred to themselves as the “token Black male.”  Expecting students to speak on behalf of all African Americans is inappropriate and will likely decrease some students’ willingness to consider participating in mainstream organizations. 

     Cross-cultural communication was the most frequently mentioned skill cited by participants of the study.  African American male student leaders reported that they had successfully learned to work with people who were different from them in terms of race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, ability, socioeconomic status, and religion.  They understood that in order to be successful they needed to establish relationships with people from different backgrounds.  Nearly all of the participants in the study said that their African American peers refused to interact with and learn about different cultures because of negative past experiences and perceptions.  Students in the study felt that membership in a student organization gave them opportunities to interact with peers outside of the African American community. 

     Harper and Quaye (2007) suggest that faculty and student affairs educators engage African American men in conversations about the ways in which they define their Blackness, the racial realities of their college experiences, and their expectations of the college / university’s response to racism and social justice.  Without the presence of predominantly Black and minority student organizations on campuses, some participants may not have found a place to express and develop their Black identities. 

Harper, S. R. & Quaye, S. J. (2007). Student organizations as venues for black identity expression and development among african american male student leaders. Journal of College Student Development 48(2), 127-144.

Encouraging Participation and Involvement

     If institutions desire for active learning to take place they must focus on how the environment might encourage student engagement and participation (Strange & Banning, 2001).  Students learn by becoming involved.  What an individual does defines involvement much more so than what a person thinks or feels.

     The physical dimensions of the environment that impact student involvement are the campus location, human-scale design, layout, and flexibility.  An institution’s geographic location plays a role in the degree to which students become involved.  Opportunities for involvement exist in both rural and urban settings.  On small, rural campuses students are often motivated to get involved because they feel isolated.  On the other hand, students attending a large urban institution will have a wide range of opportunities to get involved both on and off campus. 

     Human-scale environments are not overcrowded and their design promotes student involvement.  For example, research indicates that students in low-rise residence halls are more likely to feel a sense of community and less stress than students in high-rise residence halls.  In addition, students attending smaller classes are more likely to participate in class than student attending classes in large lecture halls. 

     The design, layout, availability, and flexibility of campus environments also impacts student involvement.  Indoor and outdoor paces that encourage students to socialize and relax with other students make students feel less isolated.  In addition to public spaces, students also need a personal place to call their own. 

     Spaces that are most likely to encourage involvement must be flexible in design.  Being able to move tables, chairs, and walls allows students to use particular spaces to meet their specific needs. 

     Human aggregate theory states that individuals are most attracted to and involved with groups who share common interests.  As a result, the use of common interest groupings is on the rise in higher education.  For example, campuses may have living-learning communities or interest groups based around a core set of learning experiences.  Campuses also have specialized offices and organizations to meet the needs of specific students (students of color, LGBT, international students, etc).   These groups encourage student involvement, especially for students who are not part of the dominant campus culture, and provide a support network. 

     The organizational scale impacts the degree to which students become involved.  As group size increases, student morale and attitudes become more negative and students care less about being absent.  If individuals feel there are few reasons to show up, they will not become as involved.  Large settings bring about a problem called overmanning.  Overmanned environments have too many people for too few opportunities.  Undermanning is also a challenge for student participation.  In this case, there are too many opportunities for too few people.  The ratio of the number of individuals to the number of opportunities is critical when it comes to creating an environment that promotes participation. 

     Organizational complexity and the way that power is distributed also impact the level of student involvement.  When structural complexity increases to a certain point and power and decision making is more equally distributed, more opportunities exist for more individuals to participate. 

     Constructed aspects of the environment have an influence on involvement, too.  Taking the time to build and maintain relationships may be one of the most critical strategies a group leader can employ if the goal is member involvement and satisfaction.  The strongest communities are those that make use of nonverbal modes of communication such as traditions and rituals.  Campus culture creates an impression on students and invites them to get involved and to become part of the experience. 

     Involving campuses are those with a clear mission, that value and expect student initiative and responsibility, that recognize and respond to the student experience, that provide small, human-scale environments and multiple subcommunities, that value students and take them and their learning seriously, and are able to generate feelings of loyalty and a sense of specialness. 

Strange, C. C., & Banning, J. H. (2001). Ch 6: Encouraging participation and involvement. In Educating by design: Creating campus learning environments that work (pp. 137-157). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

HBCU's

     Historically black colleges and universities (HBCU’s) are institutions founded primarily for the education of African Americans.  Today, HBCU’s are still primarily serve African American students and are thriving because they are successfully educating and graduating African American students.  HBCU’s enroll 14% of all African American students, but constitute only 3% of America’s more than 4,000 institutions of higher education.  In addition, they graduate nearly one quarter of African Americans who earn undergraduate degrees. 

     An HBCU provides a student with faculty and staff role models, student peer role models, and alumni role models for excelling both during and after college.  Students who attend HBCU’s benefit from increased levels of engagement with peers and faculty and faculty diversity.  As a majority on the campus, students at HBCU’s do not have to deal with assimilating in addition to other pressures of being in college.  On the other hand, racial minorities at predominantly white institutions (PWI’s) experience a greater range of problems in their efforts to adapt socially and academically than do non-minority students.  African American students at PWI’s often perceive the climate as “chilly.”  Although African-American students believe that the academic environment is more demanding at an HBCU, they are able to excel because of the added support they receive. 

     In addition to academic success, HBCU’s help students develop strong bonds with their peers and their community.  Black students at HBCU’s enjoy closer relationships with faculty and participate more fully in campus organizations.  Students receive additional support because they are surrounded by a higher percentage of black faculty and administrators as compare to PWI’s.

     HBCU’s have a rich history, tradition, and prestige and expose African American students to role models in their profession. 

Stewart, G., Wright, D., Perry, T., & Rankin, C. (2008). Historically black colleges and universities: Caretakers of precious treasure. Journal of College Admission, (201), 24-29.