Formal Summary...Culminating Thoughts

            Throughout the course of this semester, I gained much information about African American students.  I found that some of my initial assumptions, perceptions, and beliefs about this group were accurate, but several were incorrect and based on commonly held stereotypes about African Americans.  For example, my assumption about the graduation rate for this population was true.  The college completion rate of African Americans continues to fall behind other racial and ethnic groups (Owens, Lacey, Rawls & Holbert-Quince, 2010).  In addition, during two of my interviews, students mentioned that they had very little or no family support or encouragement regarding pursuing a college degree.  This, too, was one of my initial perceptions about African American students.  After reviewing my list of initial assumptions, I realized that most of my assumptions about African Americans focused on negative aspects.  I assumed African American students come from under-privileged families, struggle academically, and have difficulty managing anger, and often abuse drugs and alcohol.  In reading the literature on this student population, I learned that most of the research on this population focuses on African Americans negative outcomes rather than their educational success (Hughes, 2010).  Very few studies actually address high-achieving and gifted African American college students, but that is not to say that these students do not exist. 

            There has been a significant amount of research and assessment related to the circumstances of African Americans and other minority students at predominately white institutions, and researchers have found quite a disparity between the accomplishments of African American men and women (Cuyjet, 1997). First, black women attend college in larger numbers than black men.  Some of the barriers for African American males include incarceration, a high level of high school drop-out rates, and high homicide rates.  For African American males who do make it to college, there is often an overall feeling of unpreparedness for the academic challenges stemming from factors such as attending a poor elementary or secondary schools, low peer and adult expectations toward academic achievement, peer pressure not to further one’s education, financial challenges, and lack of appropriate role models. 

Racism and socioeconomic disadvantages can also inhibit an African America male’s ability to develop a masculine social role, desire to achieve socially responsible behavior, and have values that guide their behavior and prepare them for a career (Cuyjet, 1997).  As a result, black males often begin adopting behaviors to compensate for the behaviors that were denied them because of racism, socioeconomic disadvantage, or a combination of the two. 

Black males, in many cases, require special nurturing to help them adjust and adapt to college life, especially in the adjustment to the campus environment itself (Cuyjet, 1997).  Black males tend to be viewed negatively and reeducation needs to start on campuses and must include students, faculty, and staff.  Ironically, one of the populations requiring the most assistance in changing their attitudes and perceptions about the merits and abilities of African American men is African American men themselves. 

            In regard to engaging in campus activities, African American women are more likely to participate than African American men (Cuyjet, 1997; Harper & Wolley, 2002).  African American men indicate a much higher participation in athletic and recreational activities.  When African American men are members of a campus organization at predominantly white institutions, they primarily participate in Black and minority student organizations instead of mainstream organizations (Harper & Quaye, 2007).  The best recruiters of African American males is an actively involved African American male student leader and African American males need to feel wanted by an organization in order to consider joining. 

The physical environment of a college campus influences students’ attraction to and satisfaction with a particular institution (Strange & Banning, 2001a).  Several of the students I interviewed mentioned that their attitudes are shaped by everything from campus marketing materials to where particular offices are located on campus, the artwork hanging in campus buildings, and the graffiti written on campus walls.  They commented that these things send messages as to whether or not the campus is inclusive. 

             African American students attending historically black colleges and universities (HBCU’s) reported significantly greater levels of good practices in and out of the classroom with faculty and peers than did their counterparts at research and regional institutions (Seifert, Drummond, & Pascarella).  African American students attending liberal arts colleges, however, experienced good practices at similar levels to their counterparts at HBCU’s.  Good practice advantages for students at HBCU’s included quality of non-classroom interactions with faculty, faculty interest in teaching and student development, instructor feedback to students, scholarly and intellectual interest, and quality of interactions with peers. 

            As a majority on campus, students attending HBCU’s do not have to deal with assimilating.  On the other hand, as a racial minority at predominantly white institutions (PWI’s), African Americans experience a greater range of problems in their efforts to adapt socially and academically (Stewart, Wright, Perry, & Rankin, 2008).  African American students at PWI’s often perceive the climate as chilly.  Although African American students at HBCU’s believe that the academic environment is more demanding, they are able to excel because of the added support they receive. 

There is compelling evidence that African American males at 4-year institutions are more socially and academically integrated than their counterparts at 2-year institutions (Flowers, 2006).  African American males at 4-year institutions were more likely to attend study groups outside of class, talk to faculty outside of class, meet with their advisor to discuss their academic plan, participate in school clubs and intramural sports, and go places with friends from school than African American males at 2-year institutions. 

            There are a number of factors leading to an African American student’s decision to withdraw or transfer from a college or university that is predominately white, including things like stereotypes that lead to marginalization, racially divided campus events, a hostile environment within the residence hall, and not feeling that their voice is heard (Patton, 2006). 

The transition process for some African American students attending a predominantly white campus can be challenging, especially when it comes to adjusting to the campus climate (Littleton, 2003).  Minority students often rely on each other for support due to perceived negative connotations they sense from non-minority students and faculty.  Black male and female non-athletes at small, predominantly white liberal arts colleges report challenges in creating a sense of community because the common thinking on these campuses is that if a student is an African American, he or she must play a sport. 

When they attend college, many African American college students experience resistance, alienation, and a culture that is unlike the community they grew up in (Owens, Lacey, Rawls, & Holbert-Quince, 2010).  As a result, they often lack a sense of belonging that negatively impacts their academic goals.  Sense of belonging, defined as a psychological sense that one is a valued member of the community, plays a role in student retention for both African American and White first-year students (Hausmann, Schofield, & Woods,  2007).  Important indicators of students’ abilities to persist included integrating socially and academically at an institution, having a sense of commitment to the institution, having a goal of obtaining a college degree, having a good institutional fit, having support from friends and family, and getting involved in campus activities.  On average, both first-year African American and White students who had more parental support felt a greater sense of belonging at the beginning of the academic year, but the pattern was even stronger for African Americans.  And having more peer support was associated with an increase in sense of belonging over time for African American students.  Early social experiences that students have when they first come to college and the social support they receive during the transition are likely to be better indicators of initial feelings of sense of belonging than demographic characteristics or academic experiences.  Two of the students I interviewed touched on the challenges of persisting in college when your family and friends are not encouraging you to work toward a college degree.

             Safety and inclusion are important for development and learning to occur and allow students to be more actively engaged (Strange & Banning, 2001b).  The fear for personal safety and feeling unwelcome are both detrimental.  Those students sharing the dominant characteristics of the campus human aggregate are more likely to feel safe and included.  Psychological safety and inclusion means that students are not threatened or harassed, and it also involves a sense of mattering.  For students to get involved in campus activities and academic programs they must feel that they matter.  Again, the students I interviewed echoed these sentiments of how important it was that they feel that they mattered and were valued as individuals. 

            Various racial groups on geographically diverse public and private campuses across the country perceive and experience the campus environment differently (Rankin & Reason, 2005).  Students of color experienced harassment at higher rates than white students.  In addition, students of color perceived the campus climate as more racist and less accepting than white students, even though white students recognized racial harassment at similar rates as students of color.  Major changes in student race will likely change the campus climate (Rankin & Reason, 2005), but research indicates that the quality is more important than the quantity of interactions a student has with other not like them.  Intentional educational programming and quality interactions must be encouraged both in and out of the classroom in order to result in positive educational outcomes related to race. 

            Administrators, faculty, staff and students must work collaboratively to establish and maintain an environment where individuals are respected and beliefs can be freely expressed (Cheng, 2004).  Student activity groups are beneficial to fostering a sense of community, but they cannot do so on their own.  Programming must be intentional. 

Offices such as the Office of Multicultural Affairs can positively influence the campus climate.  In an interview with a staff member who works in this particular office at BGSU, I learned that the mission of this office is to promote and offer a welcoming, socially just, and inclusive campus community by supporting the retention of diverse student populations.  In addition, the office provides and diversity education and multicultural programs for students, faculty, and staff. 

Black culture centers on college campuses make a significant difference in student learning and facilitate an environment that encourages leadership development.  In addition, these centers help students gain a sense of community and promote a sense of mattering (Patton, 2006).  Patton’s (2006) study indicated that black culture centers provide a number of benefits to African American students.  For example, on predominately white campuses, these centers provide increased opportunities for student leadership involvement, development of students’ African American identity, more pride in their black history, and a welcoming and safe place to go where African American students feel supported.  One of the students I interviewed talked about his desire not to lose his cultural heritage.  In addition, he talked about his need for support and encouragement from other African Americans when he was constantly put in an uncomfortable position as the token African American male in classroom discussions.  He said he felt as though White students looked to him as if he was speaking on behalf of all African American males.  He further explained that daily he thinks about his words and actions and how White students perceive him. 

I had the opportunity to visit an Owens Community College learning center specifically designed to serve the student population near downtown Toledo, which is predominantly African American.  The director of the learning center talked about the focus on making students feel like they belong and matter.  He shared that many of the students who attend classes at this learning center are anxious, scared, and unsure of themselves.  In addition, they have a vague understanding of how higher education can impact their life because they are not surrounded by peers or family members who attended college previously. 

Mentoring in higher education has proven to be a valuable tool for enhancing student retention, academic achievement, and leadership development (LaVant, Anderson, & Tiggs, 1997).  African American males have especially reaped the benefits of formal mentoring and bridge programs such as Student African American Brotherhood (SAAB) (Bledsoe, 2011).  Often these bridge programs are specifically created to acclimate African American males to the campus climate and structure (Hughes, 2010).  One of the students I interviewed talked about the impact of a mentoring relationship he formed with the Dean of Students at his undergraduate institution.  He was unaware that an African American could obtain such a high-level position and was encouraged to set high career aspirations for himself as a result of his relationship with his mentor. 

            The United States faces technological segregation based on access, digital literacy, and cultural limitations (Journell, 2007).  This digital divide affects large numbers of African Americans and Latinos.  The student population at HBCU’s is has a high percentage of first-generation, low-income, and under-prepared students (Buzzetto-More, 2008).  While HBCU students tend to come to college less technologically prepared, the use of e-learning is slowly rising in popularity with this group. 

Regarding course learning and writing, African American men do not perform as well as African American women (Cuyjet, 1997).  African American men do not come to college with the same study habits as African American women and are also less likely to utilize campus resources such as math and writing labs for assistance. 

Completing the immersion project has affected me in ways that I was not expecting.  While I feel more informed about African American college students, I am more aware of the role that my assumptions and perceptions play in working with any group that is not like me.  I have a desire to become more knowledgeable and informed about groups that are not like me because I strongly believe it will make me a better student affairs practitioner and a better person.  As I learned in the cross cultural communication seminar that I attended, I need to be aware of who my cultural “lens” includes and who it leaves out and treat each student as an individual with multiple identities. 

Reference List

Arroyo, A. T. (2010). It's not a colorless classroom: Teaching religion online to black college students using transformative, postmodern pedagogy. Teaching Theology & Religion, 13(1), 35-50.

Asmerom, R. (2010, December 27). Why are Black political leaders going to bat for for-profit schools? Atlanta Post. Retrieved from http://atlantapost.com/2010/12/27/why-are-black-political-leaders-going-to-bat-for-for-profit-schools/

Bledsoe, T. (2011). About the saab organization. Retrieved from http://saabnational.org/about.htm

Buzzetto-More, N. A. (2008). Student perceptions of various e-learning components. Interdisciplinary Journal of Knowledge & Learning Objects, 113-135.

Cheng, D. X. (2004). Students’ sense of campus community: What it means, and what to do about it. NASPA Journal, 41, 216-234.

Cuyjet, M. J. (1997). African American men on college campuses: Their needs and their perceptions. New Directions For Student Services, (80), 5.

Flowers, L. A. (2006). Effects of attending a 2-year institution on African American males' academic and social integration in the first year of college. Teachers College Record, 108(2), 267-286.

Graham, L. (2011). Learning a new world: Reflections on being a first-generation college student and the influence of TRIO programs. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 2011(127), 33-38.

Harper, S. R. & Quaye, S. J. (2007). Student organizations as venues for black identity expression and development among African American male student leaders. Journal of College Student Development 48(2), 127-144.

Hausmann, L., Schofield, J., & Woods, R. (2007). Sense of belonging as a predictor of intentions to persist among African American and white first-year college students. Research In Higher Education, 48(7), 803-839.

Hughes, R. L. (2010). Engaging African American males for educational success. Gifted Child Today,33(2), 55-60.

LaVant, B. D., Anderson, J. L., & Tiggs, J. W. (1997). Retaining African American men through mentoring initiatives. New Directions For Student Services, (80), 43.

Littleton, R. A. (2003). Community among African American students on small, predominantly white campuses: The "minority within a minority" experience. NASPA Journal, 40(4), 83-104.

Museus, S. D. (2008).Focusing on institutional fabric: Assessing campus climates to enhance cross-cultural engagement. In S. R. Harper (Ed.), Creating inclusive campus climates for cross-cultural learning and student engagement (pp. 205-234). Washington, DC: National Association of Student Personnel Administrators.

Ohio Board of Regents (February, 2011). Owens community college portrait. Retrieved from https://www.owens.edu/portrait/index.html

Owens, D., Lacey, K., Rawls, G., & Holbert- Quince, J. (2010). First-Generation African American male college students: Implications for career counselors. Career Development Quarterly, 58(4), 291-300.

Patton, L. D. (2006). Black culture centers: Still central to student learning. About Campus, 11(2), 2-8.

Rankin, S. R. & Reason, R. D. (2005). Differing perceptions: How students of color and white students perceive campus climate for underrepresented groups. Journal of College Student Development, 46(1), 43-61.

Seifert, T. A., Drummond, J., & Pascarella, E. T. (2006). African-American students' experiences of good practices: A comparison of institutional type. Journal of College Student Development, 47(2), 185-205.

Shabazz, K. (2011). About saas. Retrieved from http://www.saasnational.org/about.htm

Stewart, G., Wright, D., Perry, T., & Rankin, C. (2008). Historically black colleges and universities: Caretakers of precious treasure. Journal of College Admission, (201), 24-29.

Strange, C. C., & Banning, J. H. (2001a). Ch 1: Physical environments: The role of design and space. In Educating by design: Creating campus learning environments that work (pp. 9-32). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Strange, C. C., & Banning, J. H. (2001b). Ch 5: Promoting safety and inclusion. In Educating by design: Creating campus learning environments that work (pp. 113-136). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Strange, C. C., & Banning, J. H. (2001c). Ch 6: Encouraging participation and involvement. In Educating by design: Creating campus learning environments that work (pp. 137-157). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Student Interviews:

Student Interview #1 - Traditional Aged African American Male Student

Student Interview #2- Non-Traditional African American Male Student

Student Interview #3- Female African American Traditional Age Student

Additional Sources:


Additional Sources:

            Interviewed staff member from the Office of Multicultural Affairs at BGSU & office visit

Visited The Source Learning Center & interviewed the Director

Attended Cross Cultural Communication Seminar in Columbus

     

Student African American Sisterhod (SAAS)

                 The national Student African American Sisterhood (SAAS) is committed to enriching the educational experience of Black and Brown females through unity, academic excellence, service, and support.  Through structured, research-driven programming and institutional support, SAAS is focused on improving the academic success and unification of sisters across the country.  Their motto is “we are sisters on the same journey, empowering one another through social unity, academic excellence, leadership, and support…together we are a sisterhood of distinction.  Together we can and will continue to rise.”

                 SAAS creates supportive networks among African American female, encouraging and assisting with personal and professional development, and providing strategies for educational success throughout college and beyond.  As sisterhood is built, women will be empowered personally, academically, socially, and spiritually. 

                        The six core principles of SAAS are social unity, academic excellence, cultural enrichment, personal development, financial affairs, and service learning.  These principles provide the framework for all of the activities, events, workshops etc.

 Shabazz, K. (2011). About saas. Retrieved from http://www.saasnational.org/about.htm

For-Profit Colleges & African American Students

     For-profit schools are aggressively marketing to students looking for more accessible degree programs (Asmerom, 2010).  According to the Career College Association, 43% of students enrolled in for-profit schools are minorities and 39 percent of the graduates from for-profits are minorities.  Those who are opposed to for-profit colleges say that first generation college students and minorities are often the ones paying the extremely high costs of these degree programs.  Some believe that for-profit colleges are not providing African American students the necessary resources to be successful in this type of educational setting. 

Asmerom, R. (2010, December 27).  Why are Black political leaders going to bat for for-profit schools? Atlanta Post. Retrieved from http://atlantapost.com/2010/12/27/why-are-black-political-leaders-going-to-bat-for-for-profit-schools/

TRIO Programs

     TRIO programs exist for students who desire higher education, but need guidance through the academic system.  Unless people have been through higher education or been close to someone who went to college, they may not realize the many nuances of getting accepted and actually graduating from college.  TRIO programs can offer disadvantaged students, first-generation college students, and students with disabilities support in reaching their educational goals. 

     TRIO programs began in 1964, as Lynden Johnson signed the Educational Opportunity Act into law.  The TRIO programs help disadvantaged students enroll and complete college.  Upward Bound College Prep is just one example of a TRIO program that prepares students for college through intensive on-campus classes and experiences. 

Graham, L. (2011). Learning a new world: Reflections on being a first-generation college student and the influence of TRIO programs. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 2011(127), 33-38.

African Americans & Campus Climate on Small PWI’s

     The article described the experiences of African American juniors and seniors in good academic standing who attended four different small, predominantly White liberal arts colleges in the Southern Appalachian region (Kentucky, North Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia) of the U.S.  The African American community at these colleges can often be challenging for Black male and female non-athletes.  In the past, most studies focused on African American students at mid to large public universities.  The black female and male non-athletes in this study found themselves as a minority inside the larger African American community.  The transition process for some African American students attending a predominantly white campus can be challenging, especially when it comes to adjusting to the campus climate.  Minority students on predominantly white campuses often rely on each other for support due to perceived negative connotations they sense from nonminority students and faculty. 

     According to students interviewed in the study, community among African American students was described as ranging from a close-knit family to a mere association.  Some African American students on small predominantly white campuses felt the need to stick together because there was such small number of African Americans on campus.  Some students, on the other hand, believed there was a need to enhance community on campus.  For some African American students on predominantly white campuses, their experience was unforeseen.  Students felt a closer bond to White students than Black students.  Some students in the study reported that African American males and females had difficulties getting along on campus and they thought some of this friction was due to interracial dating. 

     While an African American student is in the minority on a predominantly White campus, the experience was magnified for some students in the study, especially Black male and female non-athletes.  The common thinking at some of these campuses was that if a student is an African American, he or she must play a sport.  Some students felt that a sense of community existed only for student athletes in intercollegiate sports.  Whether an African American had light or dark skin also related to feeling like a “minority within a minority.”

       Despite the fact that expectations were often not met for Black students in this study, they persisted to graduation.   Top reasons for persistence included faculty influence, involvement in campus activities, family encouragement, and positive attitude.  Of these factors, faculty influence was number one. 

Littleton, R. A. (2003). Community Among African American Students on Small, Predominantly White Campuses: The Unforeseen "Minority within a Minority" Experience. NASPA Journal, 40(4), 83-104.

Teaching Religion Online to Black College Students

     The general practice of online teaching is still relatively new, but popular, and approaches for teaching target populations such as black students are very scarce (Arroyo, 2010).  Research has barely begun to define appropriate approaches for teaching Caucasian students online, let alone black students. 

     Higher education theory suggests that learning styles frequently vary between races and cultures.  According to Arroyo, a learning styles approach that takes into account racial and cultural ways of knowing is critical in the education of black students.  Black learners tend to prefer high contact, heavy verbal and non-verbal dialogue, deep community, and a sense of social purpose.  The online environment is more conducive to students who prefer autonomy, isolation, competition, standardization, and depersonalization. 

     Arroyo (2010) suggests that instructors keep the structure of the course free of elements that could present technological challenges in order to ensure all students have equal access.  For example, instructors must keep in mind that some students may access online courses through a dial-up connection or a hand-held device.  An abundance of audio or video can become cumbersome.  Arroyo (2010) also recommends a structure that require substantial instructor presence to meet the learning style of black students.  He also commented on the importance of the environment being warm and inviting so students feel they can openly share their ideas.  He accomplishes this by opening up discussion boards and wikis.  Research indicates that standardized assessments are unfavorable to black learners and Arroyo (2010) therefore believes that they have no place in an online course with black students.  Arroyo also commented that this sort of teaching is more labor intensive than traditional face-to-face teaching for both the instructor and the students. 

     The author believes that there is a danger in the illusion of the colorless classroom.  The nature of the online environment does not allow participants to “see” each other’s cultural and racial differences.  He cautions the reader to remember that on the other side of each computer is a living person of one race or another. 

Arroyo, A. T. (2010).  It's not a colorless classroom: Teaching religion online to black college students using transformative, postmodern pedagogy. Teaching Theology & Religion, 13(1), 35-50.

Student Perceptions of Various E-Learning Components

E-learning can either be fully online, mixed mode (also called hybrid), or web assisted (Buzzetto-More    , 2008).  Regardless of the model of delivery, there are a number of tools and features available to students and instructors, and it is important to examine both the preferences and uses of these features.  This study examined the e-learning perceptions and preferences of students enrolled at a historically black university. 

     Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU’s), while small in number, graduate the largest percentage of African Americans who earn college degrees in the United States.  They enroll 28% of all African American college students and graduate 40% of Black Americans who earn doctorates or first professional degrees.  At the same time, their student population is shown to have a high percentage of first generation, low income, and under prepared students. 

     A common assumption has been that a digital divide exists between majority and minority serving institutions.  While HBCU students come to college less technologically prepared, the use of e-learning is slowly rising in popularity with student perceptions of online learning viewed positively. 

     The majority of the study participants were minorities, with 75.9% being African American.  The majority of participants responded that they were intermediate computer users who had previously studied keyboarding and had their own computer.  Very few students said they had previous experience taking online courses.  Most students responded that they visited the course website daily.  Most respondents said that they prefer face-to-face courses over those delivered online, but the majority also said they are interested in taking a fully online course in the future. 

The results indicated that students find course websites helpful to understanding course content, and that these websites will continue to impact higher education in the future.  Students responded favorably to most e-learning components.  The strongest preference noted in the study was the online submission of assignments.  Students overwhelmingly noted that they like having the ability to check their assignment grades online.  The results reinforce the idea that e-learning is a good supplement to face-to-face instruction and that online learning has the ability to provide learners with more choices, greater flexibility, expanded resources, and increased opportunities. 

Buzzetto-More, N. A. (2008). Student perceptions of various e-learning components. Interdisciplinary Journal of Knowledge & Learning Objects, 113-135

The Inequalities of the Digital Divide. Is E-Learning a Solution?

     The U.S. faces technological segregation based on access, digital literacy, and cultural

limitations.  Both urban and rural areas feel the effect of the digital divide more than suburban areas.  This is, in large part, due to socioeconomic status and ethnicity.  The digital divide affects large numbers of African Americans and Latinos.  Many rural areas remain out of range for internet services, and even those that can access the internet often can only use dial-up modems, placing them at quite a disadvantage compared to broadband users.  The digital access of African Americans and Latinos falls well behind that of whites and Asian-Americans .  In addition, digital literacy, a measure of how comfortably one uses technology based on previous experiences, also plays a role in the digital divide.  Discrepancies in technology instruction occur across the U.S. and tend to be impacted by geographic location, socioeconomic status, and race.  Also, students from more privileged socioeconomic backgrounds are encouraged to develop computer skills, making them less anxious about using technology.  A discrepancy in how students use computers exists, too.  Students from low socioeconomic backgrounds use computers to do rote exercise and present existing material, whereas students from high socioeconomic backgrounds use computers to research, edit papers, and perform statistical analyses.  Cultural implications, such as teachers allowing male students more time to access technology, contribute to the digital divide. 

     E-learning is a possible solution to give low-income students a quality education.  The basic draw of e-learning is that students of certain geographic and socioeconomic locations can access distant educational opportunities without ever leaving their home / community.  Skeptics view e-learning as impersonal.  The ability to foster online communities rests largely in the hands of instructors that teach e-courses, therefore, teachers need training in how to teach classes online. 

. 

Journell, W. (2007).  The inequalities of the digital divide: Is e-learning a solution? E-Learning, (4), 138-149. 

Student Organizations and African American Male Student Leaders

Considerable attention has been previously devoted to studying African American college students, however, the ongoing exploration of their needs and experiences is necessary (Harper & Quaye, 2007).  African American college students often face racism, feelings of isolation, and academic obstacles at predominately White institutions.  The study found that although some African American male students were members of mainstream campus organizations, African American males were primarily holding leadership positions in predominantly Black and minority student organizations.  Regardless of the organization or the position held, however, African American male student leaders communicated a commitment to uplifting the African American community and dispelling stereotypes.  An interesting observation uncovered in the study was that males who chose to be exclusively involved in predominantly Black organizations did so because they wanted to be part of a group that responded directly to the needs and concerns of African American students.  And those who were more involved in predominantly White student organizations did so because they felt that these organizations lacked representation of African American students.  These students commented that they wanted to be the first to diversify these groups.  They also knew that these student organizations had greater resources and funding to get minority initiatives funded.  Overall, these male student leaders were compelled to get involved so their voices and the voices of other African American males could be heard.  They also commented that these groups helped them learn to deal with White people. 

     Participants of this study commented that they sometimes volunteered to provide an African American perspective in different mainstream student organizations, but often times they were involuntarily forced into these roles.  Many students referred to themselves as the “token Black male.”  Expecting students to speak on behalf of all African Americans is inappropriate and will likely decrease some students’ willingness to consider participating in mainstream organizations. 

     Cross-cultural communication was the most frequently mentioned skill cited by participants of the study.  African American male student leaders reported that they had successfully learned to work with people who were different from them in terms of race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, ability, socioeconomic status, and religion.  They understood that in order to be successful they needed to establish relationships with people from different backgrounds.  Nearly all of the participants in the study said that their African American peers refused to interact with and learn about different cultures because of negative past experiences and perceptions.  Students in the study felt that membership in a student organization gave them opportunities to interact with peers outside of the African American community. 

     Harper and Quaye (2007) suggest that faculty and student affairs educators engage African American men in conversations about the ways in which they define their Blackness, the racial realities of their college experiences, and their expectations of the college / university’s response to racism and social justice.  Without the presence of predominantly Black and minority student organizations on campuses, some participants may not have found a place to express and develop their Black identities. 

Harper, S. R. & Quaye, S. J. (2007). Student organizations as venues for black identity expression and development among african american male student leaders. Journal of College Student Development 48(2), 127-144.

Encouraging Participation and Involvement

     If institutions desire for active learning to take place they must focus on how the environment might encourage student engagement and participation (Strange & Banning, 2001).  Students learn by becoming involved.  What an individual does defines involvement much more so than what a person thinks or feels.

     The physical dimensions of the environment that impact student involvement are the campus location, human-scale design, layout, and flexibility.  An institution’s geographic location plays a role in the degree to which students become involved.  Opportunities for involvement exist in both rural and urban settings.  On small, rural campuses students are often motivated to get involved because they feel isolated.  On the other hand, students attending a large urban institution will have a wide range of opportunities to get involved both on and off campus. 

     Human-scale environments are not overcrowded and their design promotes student involvement.  For example, research indicates that students in low-rise residence halls are more likely to feel a sense of community and less stress than students in high-rise residence halls.  In addition, students attending smaller classes are more likely to participate in class than student attending classes in large lecture halls. 

     The design, layout, availability, and flexibility of campus environments also impacts student involvement.  Indoor and outdoor paces that encourage students to socialize and relax with other students make students feel less isolated.  In addition to public spaces, students also need a personal place to call their own. 

     Spaces that are most likely to encourage involvement must be flexible in design.  Being able to move tables, chairs, and walls allows students to use particular spaces to meet their specific needs. 

     Human aggregate theory states that individuals are most attracted to and involved with groups who share common interests.  As a result, the use of common interest groupings is on the rise in higher education.  For example, campuses may have living-learning communities or interest groups based around a core set of learning experiences.  Campuses also have specialized offices and organizations to meet the needs of specific students (students of color, LGBT, international students, etc).   These groups encourage student involvement, especially for students who are not part of the dominant campus culture, and provide a support network. 

     The organizational scale impacts the degree to which students become involved.  As group size increases, student morale and attitudes become more negative and students care less about being absent.  If individuals feel there are few reasons to show up, they will not become as involved.  Large settings bring about a problem called overmanning.  Overmanned environments have too many people for too few opportunities.  Undermanning is also a challenge for student participation.  In this case, there are too many opportunities for too few people.  The ratio of the number of individuals to the number of opportunities is critical when it comes to creating an environment that promotes participation. 

     Organizational complexity and the way that power is distributed also impact the level of student involvement.  When structural complexity increases to a certain point and power and decision making is more equally distributed, more opportunities exist for more individuals to participate. 

     Constructed aspects of the environment have an influence on involvement, too.  Taking the time to build and maintain relationships may be one of the most critical strategies a group leader can employ if the goal is member involvement and satisfaction.  The strongest communities are those that make use of nonverbal modes of communication such as traditions and rituals.  Campus culture creates an impression on students and invites them to get involved and to become part of the experience. 

     Involving campuses are those with a clear mission, that value and expect student initiative and responsibility, that recognize and respond to the student experience, that provide small, human-scale environments and multiple subcommunities, that value students and take them and their learning seriously, and are able to generate feelings of loyalty and a sense of specialness. 

Strange, C. C., & Banning, J. H. (2001). Ch 6: Encouraging participation and involvement. In Educating by design: Creating campus learning environments that work (pp. 137-157). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

HBCU's

     Historically black colleges and universities (HBCU’s) are institutions founded primarily for the education of African Americans.  Today, HBCU’s are still primarily serve African American students and are thriving because they are successfully educating and graduating African American students.  HBCU’s enroll 14% of all African American students, but constitute only 3% of America’s more than 4,000 institutions of higher education.  In addition, they graduate nearly one quarter of African Americans who earn undergraduate degrees. 

     An HBCU provides a student with faculty and staff role models, student peer role models, and alumni role models for excelling both during and after college.  Students who attend HBCU’s benefit from increased levels of engagement with peers and faculty and faculty diversity.  As a majority on the campus, students at HBCU’s do not have to deal with assimilating in addition to other pressures of being in college.  On the other hand, racial minorities at predominantly white institutions (PWI’s) experience a greater range of problems in their efforts to adapt socially and academically than do non-minority students.  African American students at PWI’s often perceive the climate as “chilly.”  Although African-American students believe that the academic environment is more demanding at an HBCU, they are able to excel because of the added support they receive. 

     In addition to academic success, HBCU’s help students develop strong bonds with their peers and their community.  Black students at HBCU’s enjoy closer relationships with faculty and participate more fully in campus organizations.  Students receive additional support because they are surrounded by a higher percentage of black faculty and administrators as compare to PWI’s.

     HBCU’s have a rich history, tradition, and prestige and expose African American students to role models in their profession. 

Stewart, G., Wright, D., Perry, T., & Rankin, C. (2008). Historically black colleges and universities: Caretakers of precious treasure. Journal of College Admission, (201), 24-29.